| CPC C02F 1/469 (2013.01) [C02F 1/4691 (2013.01); C02F 2001/46138 (2013.01); C02F 2101/006 (2013.01); C02F 2101/10 (2013.01); C02F 2101/103 (2013.01); C02F 2101/20 (2013.01); C02F 2101/22 (2013.01); C02F 2209/06 (2013.01)] | 18 Claims |

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1. A method, comprising:
applying an electrical potential across a first electrode comprising a first conductive substrate and a first redox species immobilized to the first conductive substrate and a second electrode, such that a target species comprising a heavy metal, a transition metal, and/or a metalloid is adsorbed on the first electrode based on a specific chemical interaction between the first redox species and the target species;
splitting water at the second electrode;
electrochemically transforming the target species by reduction; and
releasing the target species from the first electrode such that, after the release, the heavy metal, the transition metal, and/or the metalloid has an oxidation state that is different from the oxidation state of the heavy metal, transition metal, and/or metalloid just prior to the adsorption of the target species on the first electrode,
wherein splitting the water at the second electrode comprises generating protons and lowering a pH of a fluid in contact with the first electrode, and wherein electrochemically transforming the target species by reduction comprises reducing the target species using the protons as a co-reagent.
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