| CPC B01J 37/0201 (2013.01) [B01J 23/42 (2013.01); B01J 37/08 (2013.01); B01J 37/16 (2013.01)] | 15 Claims |

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1. A catalyst support structure comprising:
a base material;
a metal oxide support structure, wherein the metal oxide support structure is formed by:
loading a first concentration of precursors of a metal oxide onto the base material using incipient wetness impregnation (IWI) to form the catalyst support structure;
performing a first calcination process on the catalyst support structure at a first temperature to produce first structures of the metal oxide, wherein at least one of the first concentration or the first temperature are selected to produce mixed oxide species at an interface with the base material;
loading a second concentration of precursors of the metal oxide onto the catalyst support structure using IWI to at least partially cover the first structures of the metal oxide, wherein the second concentration is higher than the first concentration; and
performing a second calcination process on the catalyst support structure to produce second structures of the metal oxide; and
at least one of a metal or a metal oxide disposed on the metal oxide support structure, wherein the at least one of the metal or the metal oxide is formed by:
reducing the metal oxide support structure with a gas-phase reducing agent to generate a plurality of defect sites on a surface of the metal oxide support structure;
loading the at least one of the metal or the metal oxide onto the metal oxide support structure to generate a catalyst structure, wherein at least a portion of the metal or the metal oxide attaches to the plurality of defect sites; and
performing a calcination process on the catalyst structure.
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