introducing the carbon dioxide to a catalyst comprising a nanostructured bimetallic or trimetallic MXene carbide, nitride, or carbonitride catalyst coated on a cathode and in contact with a liquid catholyte in an electrochemical cell, wherein the nanostructured bimetallic or trimetallic MXene carbide, nitride, or carbonitride catalyst comprises a plurality of nanoparticles, nanoflakes, and/or nanoribbons, having an average structure size between about 1 nm and 400 nm;

applying a potential to the electrochemical cell; and

converting the carbon dioxide to a hydrocarbon.