transmitting, from a client network application of a client device, a first request for a first network resource to a server;

receiving, from the server, a second request to challenge that the first request was initiated by a human user through verifying a first physical interaction between the human user and a hardware component, the second request being received prior to the first network resource being received at the client network application;

causing a first prompt to be displayed to perform the first physical interaction with the hardware component;

receiving a first cryptographic attestation that includes a first attestation signature that is generated after confirmation that the first physical interaction was performed with the hardware component;

generating a first zero-knowledge proof of the first attestation signature at the client device;

transmitting, from the client network application to the server, the first zero-knowledge proof of the first attestation signature for verification;

receiving the first network resource responsive to the server verifying the validity of the first zero-knowledge proof of the first attestation signature;

transmitting, from the client network application of the client device, a third request for a second network resource to the server;

receiving, from the server, a fourth request to challenge that the third request was initiated by a human user through verifying a second physical interaction between the human user and the hardware component, the third request being received prior to the second network resource being received at the client network application;

causing a second prompt to be displayed to perform the second physical interaction with the hardware component;

receiving a second cryptographic attestation that includes a second attestation signature that is generated after confirmation that the second physical interaction was performed with the hardware component;

generating a second zero-knowledge proof of the second attestation signature at the client device;

transmitting, from the client network application to the server, the second zero-knowledge proof of the second attestation signature for verification;

receiving a request for the human user to participate in a CAPTCHA challenge responsive to the server determining that the second zero-knowledge proof cannot be verified as valid;

presenting the CAPTCHA challenge;

transmitting, from the client network application to the server, a response to the CAPTCHA challenge; and

receiving the second network resource responsive to the server verifying the response to the CAPTCHA challenge.